Regulation (EU) 2023/956 establishing a carbon border adjustment mechanism

Summary:

Regulation (EU) 2023/956 - adopted by the co-legislators on 10 May 2023 - establishing a new Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). This is a text with EEA relevance.

Further information:

This Regulation establishes a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) to address greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions embedded in the goods on their importation into the EU customs territory in order to prevent the risk of carbon leakage. It complements the the EU ETS established under Directive 2003/87/EC by applying an equivalent set of rules to imports into the EU customs territory of the goods referred to in Article 2 of this Regulation. It is also set to replace the mechanisms established under Directive 2003/87/EC to prevent the risk of carbon leakage.

The European Commission first announced its intention to propose a CBAM in its Communication setting out the European Green Deal, applicable to selected sectors to reduce the risk of carbon leakage. The mechanism aims to ensure that the price of imports reflect more accurately their carbon content, should differences in levels of ambition worldwide persist. This measure is designed to comply with World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules and other international obligations of the European Union (EU).

The draft law was adopted by the European Commission on 14 July 2021, as part of the so-called Fit for 55 legislative package. The Council of the European Union adopted its general approach on 15 March 2022. The plenary of the European Parliament endorsed a negotiating position on 22 June. An informal agreement between the co-legislators on a compromise text for the file was reached on 12 December. This was formally endorsed by the Parliament on 18 April 2023 and by the Council on 25 April. The Act was signed by the co-legislators on 10 May 2023 and published in the Official Journal on 16 May 2023.

The first call for feedback on the rules governing the implementation of the CBAM during its transitional phase - from 1 October 2023 until the end of 2025 - was published by the European Commission on 13 June. On 17 August, the Commission adopted an Implementing Regulation focusing on the reporting rules for the CBAM's transitional phase. This phase entered into application on 1 October.

Official

EUR-LEX: COM(2021)564: Proposal for a Regulation establishing a carbon border adjustment mechanism https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=COM:2021:564:FIN

EUR-LEX: SWD(2021)643: Staff Working Document accompanying the Proposal - Impact Assessment Report https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=SWD:2021:643:FIN

EUR-LEX: SWD(2021)644: Staff Working Document accompanying the Proposal - Executive Summary of the Impact Assessment Report https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=SWD:2021:644:FIN

EUR-LEX: SWD(2021)647: Staff Working Document accompanying the Proposal - Subsidiarity Grid https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=SWD:2021:647:FIN

European Parliament: Legislative Observatory: Procedure File for Proposal on Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism. 'Fit for 55 package' (2021/0214(COD)) https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2021/0214(COD)

European Parliament: Legislative Train Schedule: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism as part of the European Green Deal https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-a-european-green-deal/file-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

European Commission: DG Taxation and Customs Union: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism_en

European Commission: Public Consultations: EU Green Deal (carbon border adjustment mechanism) (2020-2021) https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12228-EU-Green-Deal-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-_en

Environmental Protection Agency (Ireland): EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.epa.ie/our-services/licensing/climate-change/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism/

Norwegian Government: Letter, 02/07/2021: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism – Preliminary Norwegian Positions https://www.regjeringen.no/en/find-document/dep/FIN/anbud-konsesjoner-og-brev/Publications-in-English-or-translated-in/utvalgte-brev/2021/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-preliminary-norwegian-positions/id2865475/

European Commission: Press Release, 14/07/2021: European Green Deal: Commission proposes transformation of EU economy and society to meet climate ambitions https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3541

European Commission: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: Questions and Answers (14 July 2021) https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_21_3661

EPP EP Group: Newsroom, 21/12/2021: De-carbonise, not de-industrialise Europe https://www.eppgroup.eu/newsroom/news/de-carbonise-not-de-industrialise-europe

Norwegian Government: Letter, 02/03/2022: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism – Norwegian Positions https://www.regjeringen.no/en/find-document/dep/FIN/anbud-konsesjoner-og-brev/Publications-in-English-or-translated-in/utvalgte-brev/2022/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-norwegian-positions/id2902803/

Council of the European Union: Press Release, 15/03/2022: Council agrees on the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/03/15/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam-council-agrees-its-negotiating-mandate/

European Parliament: Press Release, 17/05/2022: CBAM: MEPs push for higher ambition in new carbon leakage instrument https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220516IPR29647/

European Parliament: Press Release, 22/06/2022: CBAM: Parliament pushes for higher ambition in new carbon leakage instrument https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220603IPR32157/

Council of the European Union: Press Release, 13/12/2022: EU climate action: provisional agreement reached on Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/12/13/eu-climate-action-provisional-agreement-reached-on-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam/

European Parliament: Press Release, 13/12/2022: Deal reached on new carbon leakage instrument to raise global climate ambition https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20221212IPR64509/

European Commission: Press Release, 13/12/2022: European Green Deal: Agreement reached on the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_7719

S&D EP Group: Newsroom, 17/04/2023: With CBAM: Full support to our industries as they decarbonise https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/cbam-full-support-our-industries-they-decarbonise

European Parliament: Press Release, 18/04/2023: Fit for 55: Parliament adopts key laws to reach 2030 climate target https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20230414IPR80120/

Greens/EFA EP Group: Press Release, 18/04/2023: European Parliament approves catalyst for cleaner production https://www.greens-efa.eu/en/article/press/european-parliament-approves-catalyst-for-cleaner-production

Council of the European Union: Press Release, 25/04/2023: 'Fit for 55': Council adopts key pieces of legislation delivering on 2030 climate targets https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/04/25/fit-for-55-council-adopts-key-pieces-of-legislation-delivering-on-2030-climate-targets/

European Commission: Press Release, 13/06/2023: The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism starts applying in its transitional phase as of 1 October: Commission consults on reporting obligations https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_3243

European Commission: Press Release, 17/08/2023: Commission adopts detailed reporting rules for the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism's transitional phase https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_4186

European Commission: Press Release, 29/09/2023: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) starts to apply in its transitional phase https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_4685

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News

EurActiv: Topics: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) https://www.euractiv.com/topics/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam/

EUObserver, 16/07/2021: EU carbon border tax to target imports from 2026 https://euobserver.com/climate/152460

TIME Magazine, 26/07/2021: John Kerry on Border Carbon Tax: The U.S. Doesn't Want to Push Others Away https://time.com/6084078/john-kerry-border-carbon-mechansim-cbam/

Reuters, 01/09/2021: EU's planned carbon border tax to impact Russia the most - study https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/eus-planned-carbon-border-tax-impact-russia-most-study-2021-09-01/

The Guardian, 28/10/2021: EU carbon border levy could sabotage climate goals, says thinktank https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/28/eu-carbon-border-levy-could-sabotage-climate-goals-says-thinktank

Argus Media, 08/12/2021: Doubts persist on suitability of EU CBAM https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2281231-doubts-persist-on-suitability-of-eu-cbam

Politico, 23/12/2021: London mulls carbon border tax with an eye on Brussels https://www.politico.eu/article/carbon-border-tax-carbon-pricing-steve-barclay-carbon-leakage-cbam/

EurActiv, 11/01/2022: Lawmaker drafts ‘complete overhaul’ of EU carbon border levy https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/eu-lawmaker-drafts-complete-overhaul-of-carbon-border-levy/

RFI News, 20/01/2022: EU ministers mull climate policy, carbon border tax https://www.rfi.fr/en/eu-ministers-mull-climate-policy-carbon-border-tax

EurActiv, 15/02/2022: EU in balancing act over carbon border levy, industry concerns https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/eu-in-balancing-act-over-carbon-border-levy-industry-concerns/

EUObserver, 17/05/2022: MEPs raise ambition on EU carbon market reform https://euobserver.com/green-economy/154969

Politico, 13/12/2022: More fights ahead for EU carbon border tax https://www.politico.eu/article/european-union-carbon-border-tax/

Euronews, 18/04/2023: European Parliament approves mega package of EU climate measures https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2023/04/18/european-parliament-approves-mega-package-of-eu-climate-measures

BBC News, 04/09/2023: Brexit: EU carbon law 'could be Stormont brake's first test' https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-66702420

Bloomberg, 01/10/2023: Europe’s War on Carbon Goes Global as Border Tax Comes Into Play https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-10-01/europe-s-war-on-carbon-goes-global-as-border-tax-comes-into-play?leadSource=uverify%20wall

Politico, 01/10/2023: Europe takes climate fight global as carbon border tax goes live https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-climate-fight-global-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam-tax/

Reuters, 02/10/2023: EU launches first phase of world's first carbon border tariff https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/eu-launches-first-phase-worlds-first-carbon-border-tariff-2023-09-30/

Reuters, 26/02/2024: EU carbon border tax will do little to cut emissions, ADB study says https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/eu-carbon-border-tax-will-do-little-cut-emissions-says-adb-study-2024-02-26/

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Commentary and Analysis

Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR): CBAM https://cepr.org/search?keyword%5B356443%5D=356443

PwC (Netherlands): Services: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.pwc.nl/en/services/tax/managing-tax-and-energy-transition/fit-for-55/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism.html

European Environmental Bureau (EEB): Towards a Carbon Border Adjustment in Europe – EEB response to public consultation (28 October 2020) https://eeb.org/library/towards-a-carbon-border-adjustment-in-europe-eeb-response-to-public-consultation/

Bruegel: Events, 04/02/2021: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: Greening the EU trade? https://www.bruegel.org/event/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-greening-eu-trade

LSE: Grantham Institute: Policy Publications, 01/04/2021: What does an EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism mean for the UK? https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/publication/what-does-an-eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-mean-for-the-uk/

Centre for European Reform (CER): Insights, 05/07/2021: Avoiding the pitfalls of an EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.cer.eu/insights/avoiding-pitfalls-eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

White&Case: Alert, 15/07/2021: Fit for 55: EU moves to introduce carbon border adjustment mechanism https://www.whitecase.com/publications/alert/fit-55-eu-moves-introduce-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

Bruegel: Blog, 19/07/2021: The European Union’s carbon border mechanism and the WTO https://www.bruegel.org/2021/07/the-european-unions-carbon-border-mechanism-and-the-wto/

Pinsent Masons: Out-Law News, 19/07/2021: European Commission outlines plan for carbon border adjustment mechanism https://www.pinsentmasons.com/out-law/news/european-commission-outlines-plan-for-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

FreshFields Bruckhaus Deringer: Briefings, 22/07/2021: CBAM: Europe’s attempt to prevent carbon leakage https://www.freshfields.com/en-gb/our-thinking/knowledge/briefing/2021/07/cbam-europes-attempt-to-prevent-carbon-leakage/

Veblen Institute: Publications, 23/07/2021: The conditions for an effective and fair carbon border adjustment mechanism https://www.veblen-institute.org/The-conditions-for-an-effective-and-fair-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism.html

International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD): Commentary, 28/07/2021: EU Unveils Planned Carbon Tax on Imports Amid U.S., Japanese Concerns https://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/policy-briefs/eu-unveils-planned-carbon-tax-on-imports-amid-u-s-japanese-concerns/

Ernst&Young (EY): Tax Alerts, 29/07/2021: European Commission releases proposal for a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.ey.com/en_gl/tax-alerts/european-commission-releases-proposal-for-a-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

Deutsche Welle, 03/08/2021: EU's new carbon scheme — how will it affect trade with ASEAN? https://p.dw.com/p/3yTC6

UK in a Changing Europe: Commentary, 03/08/2021: CBAM: what might an EU Carbon-Border Adjustment Mechanism mean for the UK? https://ukandeu.ac.uk/eu-cbam-uk/

The Economist, 07/08/2021: The EU’s proposed carbon tariff gets a mixed reaction from industry https://www.economist.com/business/2021/08/07/the-eus-proposed-carbon-tariff-gets-a-mixed-reaction-from-industry

GMFUS: Policy Briefs, 03/09/2021: The EU’s Triangular Dilemma on Climate and Trade https://www.gmfus.org/news/eus-triangular-dilemma-climate-and-trade

Heinrich Böll Foundation: Analysis, 13/09/2021: The proposal for a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism fails the ambition and equity tests https://eu.boell.org/en/2021/09/13/proposal-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-fails-ambition-and-equity-tests

Oxford University: Practical Ethics, 14/09/2021: The Morality of Carbon Border Taxes https://blog.practicalethics.ox.ac.uk/2021/09/the-morality-of-carbon-border-taxes/

Foreign Policy, 17/09/2021: China and the United States Could Sabotage EU Emission Efforts Again https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/09/17/china-united-states-european-union-greenhouse-gas-emissions/

EIAS: Op-Ed, 21/09/2021: Mitigating Opposition to the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: Engaging BRICS and the Global South https://eias.org/op-ed/mitigating-opposition-to-the-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-engaging-brics-and-the-global-south/

Cambridge University: Cambridge Institute for Sustainability Leadership: Working Paper, October 2021: On the Borderline: The EU CBAM and its place in the world of trade https://www.cisl.cam.ac.uk/resources/publications/eu-cbam-and-its-place-world-trade

Plastics Europe: Knowledge Hub, October 2021: Position Paper - Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam/

Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI): Commentary, 05/10/2021: The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: A Call for Cooperation on Carbon Pricing https://www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-call-cooperation-carbon-pricing-32211

European Aluminium: Preliminary Assessment - Draft Regulation on the introduction of an EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (7 October 2021) https://www.european-aluminium.eu/media/3299/07-10-2021-european-aluminium_preliminary-views-on-draft-cbam-proposal-final.pdf

European Tax: Blog, 12/10/2021: Graphite or Diamonds? The complications of Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism(s) https://www.europeantax.blog/post/102h7t4/graphite-or-diamonds-the-complications-of-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanisms

Open Society Foundations: Voices, 21/10/2021: The EU Must Think Globally on Carbon Import Tax https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/voices/the-eu-must-think-globally-on-carbon-import-tax

Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE): Policy Briefs, November 2021: Can EU carbon border adjustment measures propel WTO climate talks? https://www.piie.com/publications/policy-briefs/can-eu-carbon-border-adjustment-measures-propel-wto-climate-talks

European Centre for International Political Economy (ECIPE): Policy Briefs, November 2021: Europe’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: Time to Go Back to the Drawing Board https://ecipe.org/publications/europe-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism/

Harvard International Review, 17/11/2021: The European Union, the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism, and Global Climate Leadership https://hir.harvard.edu/the-european-union-the-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-and-global-climate-leadership/

Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP): Publications, 18/11/2021: Climate ambition and justice: A compass for the CBAM design https://ieep.eu/publications/climate-ambition-and-justice-a-compass-for-the-cbam-design

E3G: Letters, 13/12/2021: EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism — Joint NGO statement https://www.e3g.org/news/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam-joint-ngo-statement/

European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS): Briefing, 19/01/2022: ‘Fit for 55’ package: Carbon border adjustment mechanism - Initial Appraisal of a European Commission Impact Assessment https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2022)699473

Institute of International & European Affairs: Blog, 20/01/2022: CBAM: An EU Foreign Climate Policy https://www.iiea.com/blog/cbam-an-eu-foreign-climate-policy

CEPR: VoxEU: Article, 23/01/2022: Japan should lead the global effort to decarbonise: Reflections on the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://voxeu.org/article/reflections-eu-s-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

SP Global: Market Insights, 09/02/2022: CBAM may not work without policy adopted for steel exporters: webinar https://www.spglobal.com/commodity-insights/en/market-insights/latest-news/metals/020922-cbam-may-not-work-without-policy-adopted-for-steel-exporters-webinar

Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI): Discussion Briefs, 10/02/2022: Swedish policy positions and perspectives on CBAM https://doi.org/10.51414/sei2022.004

Carbon Market Watch: Opinion, 24/02/2022: CBAM: Exploring MEP Chahim’s draft report https://carbonmarketwatch.org/2022/02/24/cbam-exploring-mep-chahims-draft-report/

Ernst&Young (EY): Article, 04/03/2022: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) update and its impact on the EU cross-border imports https://www.ey.com/en_ch/tax/green-taxes/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP): Publications, 07/03/2022: Summary for decision-makers: Four guiding principles for CBAM design and implementation https://ieep.eu/publications/summary-for-decision-makers-four-guiding-principles-for-cbam-design-and-implementation

French Institute of International Relations (IFRI): Brefings, 09/03/2022: The EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: A Piece in the Industry Decarbonization Puzzle https://www.ifri.org/en/publications/briefings-de-lifri/eus-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-piece-industry

European Environmental Bureau (EEB): Joint NGO statement on the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) ahead of the ECOFIN Meeting (10 March 2022) https://eeb.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/NGO-statement-on-CBAM-for-ECOFIN-meeting_March-2022.pdf

Tax Foundation, 18/03/2022: Russia’s Ukrainian War Could Impact EU Carbon Proposal Too https://taxfoundation.org/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam/

Heinrich Böll Foundation (Tel Aviv): Explainer, 21/03/2022: What is the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism and what does it mean for Israel? https://il.boell.org/en/2022/03/21/what-eus-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam

Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR): VoxEU, 26/03/2022: The EU in search of a WTO-compatible Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://voxeu.org/article/search-wto-compatible-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

EurActiv: Opinion, 31/03/2022: United States lawmakers are at a CBAM tipping point https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/opinion/united-states-lawmakers-are-at-a-cbam-tipping-point/

SP Global: Commodity Insights, 28/04/2022: EU carbon border charge threatens exports: AEGIS Europe https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/energy-transition/042822-eu-carbon-border-charge-threatens-exports-aegis-europe

Centre for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS): Analysis, 17/05/2022: The CBAM, Sectoral Averages, and the Need for Granularity https://www.csis.org/analysis/cbam-sectoral-averages-and-need-granularity

Clingendael: Alert, 24/05/2022: The CBAM effect: the world's response to the EU's climate stick https://www.clingendael.org/publication/cbam-effect-worlds-response-eus-climate-stick

European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS): At a Glance, 20/06/2022: EU carbon border adjustment mechanism https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_ATA(2022)729462

European Centre for International Political Economy (ECIPE): Blog, July 2022: Europe’s Carbon Border Adjustment moves to trilogue: potential impact on trade and WTO compatibility still unclear https://ecipe.org/blog/europes-carbon-border-adjustment/

E3G: Blog, 26/07/2022: Cooperation on carbon border adjustments could help reset UK–EU relations https://www.e3g.org/news/cooperation-on-carbon-border-adjustments-could-help-reset-uk-eu-relations/

Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE): Policy Briefs, October 2022: EU carbon border adjustment mechanism faces many challenges https://www.piie.com/publications/policy-briefs/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-faces-many-challenges

Bloomberg: Professional Services Blog, 25/10/2022: EU carbon border adjustment mechanism https://www.bloomberg.com/professional/blog/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism/

Blog Droit Européen, 25/10/2022: The European Parliament, the Council and the European Commission enter the second trilogue negotiations for the adoption of the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Charlotte Delsol https://blogdroiteuropeen.com/2022/10/25/the-european-parliament-the-council-and-the-european-commission-enter-the-second-trilogue-negotiations-for-the-adoption-of-the-eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam-charlotte-delsol/

European Journal of International Law (EJIL): Talk! Blog, 31/10/2022: Is the EU realizing an externally just green transition? A short analysis of the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism from the perspective of the CBDR principle and the right to development of LDCs. https://www.ejiltalk.org/is-the-eu-realizing-an-externally-just-green-transition-a-short-analysis-of-the-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-from-the-perspective-of-the-cbdr-principle-and-the-right-to-development-of-ldcs/

Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR): Discussion Paper, 01/11/2022: The EU Proposal for a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM): An Analysis under WTO and Climate Change Law https://cepr.org/publications/dp17629

Clingendael Institute: Events, 28/11/2022: Can Europe avoid trade wars over climate policy? The case of CBAM https://www.clingendael.org/event/can-europe-avoid-trade-wars-over-climate-policy-case-cbam

Chatham House: Expert Comment, 05/12/2022: The future for global trade in a changing climate https://www.chathamhouse.org/2022/12/future-global-trade-changing-climate

WorldWide Fund for Nature (WWF), 13/12/2022: Half-baked deal on carbon border levy missing key ingredients https://www.wwf.eu/?8426966/Half-baked-deal-on-carbon-border-levy-missing-key-ingredients

Renew Europe EP Group: Newsroom 13/12/2022: Deal on Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: historic agreement for the climate and Europe's competitiveness https://www.reneweuropegroup.eu/news/2022-12-13/deal-on-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-historic-agreement-for-the-climate-and-europes-competitiveness

Social Europe, 14/12/2022: Avoiding ‘carbon leakage’—adjustments needed https://www.socialeurope.eu/avoiding-carbon-leakage-adjustments-needed

EurActiv: Opinion, 15/12/2022: CBAM: Can the EU afford to leave global markets to decarbonize? https://www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/opinion/cbam-can-the-eu-afford-to-leave-global-markets-to-decarbonize/

European Tax Blog, 16/12/2022: Provisional agreement reached on the European Union's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.europeantax.blog/post/102i3p4/provisional-agreement-reached-on-the-european-unions-carbon-border-adjustment-me

PriceWaterhouseCoopers (PwC): Tax & Legal News, 10/01/2023: EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) – what do businesses in the Middle East need to know? https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/services/tax/me-tax-legal-news/2023/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism.html

Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP): Blog, 16/01/2023: Agreement on CBAM: A long way to go https://ieep.eu/news/agreement-on-cbam-a-long-way-to-go/

Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS): Brief, 17/02/2023: Analyzing the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.csis.org/analysis/analyzing-european-unions-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

Oxford Institute for Energy Studies: OIES Podcast, 16/03/2023: Can the EU’s carbon border adjustment mechanism accelerate progress on China’s emissions trading system? https://www.oxfordenergy.org/publications/oies-podcast-can-the-eus-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-accelerate-progress-on-chinas-emissions-trading-system/

White&Case, 16/03/2023: The EU Agreement on a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.whitecase.com/insight-alert/eu-agreement-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

ING Think: Article, 02/05/2023: How the EU’s carbon border tax will affect the global metals trade https://think.ing.com/articles/how-will-the-eus-carbon-border-tax-affect-global-metals-trade/

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: Article, 09/05/2023: A Political Economy Perspective on the EU’s Carbon Border Tax https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/05/09/political-economy-perspective-on-eu-s-carbon-border-tax-pub-89706

KPMG: Insights, 17/05/2023: EU: Rules for carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM) are effective https://kpmg.com/us/en/home/insights/2023/05/tnf-eu-rules-for-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-are-effective.html

Clyde&Co: Insights, 22/05/2023: The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism – An Update https://www.clydeco.com/en/insights/2023/05/the-eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-an-updat

German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin): Weekly Report No 22, 01/06/2023: The New European Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://doi.org/10.18723/diw_dwr:2023-22-1

London School of Economics (LSE): Business Review, 05/06/2023: EU efforts to decarbonise trade must avoid unintended impacts on Africa https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2023/06/05/eu-efforts-to-decarbonise-trade-1must-avoid-unintended-impacts-on-africa-1/

Linklaters: Publications, 06/06/2023: EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM): What you need to know https://www.linklaters.com/en/knowledge/publications/alerts-newsletters-and-guides/2023/june/06/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-cbam-what-you-need-to-know

European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS): Briefing, 13/06/2023: EU carbon border adjustment mechanism: Implications for climate and competitiveness https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2022)698889

Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW): Tax News, 20/09/2023: How will the EU carbon border adjustment mechanism affect UK businesses? https://www.icaew.com/insights/tax-news/2023/sep-2023/how-will-the-eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-affect-uk-businesses

Oxford Economics: Blog, 27/10/2023: The EU’s CBAM needs more bite to change the trajectory of emissions https://www.oxfordeconomics.com/resource/the-eus-cbam-needs-more-bite-to-change-the-trajectory-of-emissions/

Center for Global Development: Blog, 15/11/2023: The EU’s Carbon Border Tax: How Can Developing Countries Respond? https://www.cgdev.org/blog/eus-carbon-border-tax-how-can-developing-countries-respond

European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS): At a Glance, 30/11/2023: Carbon border adjustment mechanism https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_ATA(2023)754626

SciencePo: European Chair for Sustainable Development and Climate Transition, 05/01/2024: How to address the Externalities of the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism in Serbia https://www.sciencespo.fr/psia/chair-sustainable-development/2024/01/05/how-to-address-the-externalities-of-the-eus-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-in-serbia/

Baker McKenzie: Insight Plus, 16/01/2024: European Union: The new European Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://insightplus.bakermckenzie.com/bm/tax/european-union-the-new-european-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism

Norton Rose Fulbright: Publications, February 2024: Carbon border adjustments in the EU and beyond https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/3b507821/carbon-border-adjustments-in-the-eu-and-beyond

PwC: Blog, 27/02/2024: The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM): Implications for supply chains https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/services/tax/esg-tax/cbam-supply-chain-imperatives.html

UK Parliament: House of Commons Library: Research Briefing, 05/03/2024: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9935/

Senedd Cymru: Research Articles, 27/03/2024: The EU’s race to net zero and why it matters to everyone else https://research.senedd.wales/research-articles/the-eu-s-race-to-net-zero-and-why-it-matters-to-everyone-else/

S&P Global: Commodity Insights, 18/04/2024: EU's CBAM to spur other countries to introduce carbon border levies: IETA https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/energy-transition/041824-eus-cbam-to-spur-other-countries-to-introduce-carbon-border-levies-ieta

Project Syndicate: Commentary, 24/05/2024: Europe’s Carbon Border Tax Advances the Fight Against Climate Change https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/eu-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-may-hold-key-to-combating-climate-change-by-jeffrey-frankel-2024-05

International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS): Strategic Comments, Vol 30, 09/07/2024: The EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://www.iiss.org/publications/strategic-comments/2024/07/the-eus-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism/

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Wikipedia: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Border_Adjustment_Mechanism

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