Climate Change Negotiations: From Kyoto to Marrakech, November 2001

After negotiations which have taken place around the world, from Japan to Argentina, from The Netherlands to Germany, an agreement on the operational rules for the Kyoto Protocol was finally reached in Morocco on 10 November 2001, paving the way for its ratification.

The 180 members of the United Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed on the legal text covering the procedures and institutions needed to make the protocol fully operational at the 7th Session (COP7) held in Marrakech from 29 October until 10 November 2001. This follows the political agreement reached in July 2001 on how to implement the protocol.

Speaking about the agreement, Michael Zammit Cujar, the Convention's Executive Secretary, said,

After several years of tough negotiations, the institutions and detailed procedures of the Kyoto Protocol are now in place. The next step is to test their effectiveness in overseeing the 5% cut in greenhouse emissions by developed countries over the next decade.
UNFCC Press Release: 10.11.01

The Protocol will enter into force and become legally binding after it has been ratified by at least 55 Parties to the Convention, including industrialised countries representing at least 55% of the total 1990 carbon dioxide emissions from this group. By 26 October 2001, there were 84 signatories to the Kyoto Protocol and of those 43 had ratified it, including one industrialised country (Romania).

Background

Climate Change: The Issues and the Evidence

During the twentieth century there was an unprecedented increase in the average temperature on the surface of the earth due to human activities, in particular in energy consumption, with potentially serious effects on the climate. The average surface temperature rose by 0.6% during the twentieth century and scientific evidence concluded that most of this was attributable to human activities such as de-forestation and the burning fossil fuels, both of which cause emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), and other 'greenhouse gases'.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to an understanding of the risk of human-induced climate change. In a worse case scenario, it suggests that average global temperatures could rise by 5.5% by 2100 and sea levels by 90 centimetres.

The IPCC also produces assessment reports based on published, peer-reviewed scientific literature and thus these are accepted as the consensus of international scientific opinion. The first assessment report was published in 1990 and was an important tool in the negotiations for the UNFCCC, adopted in 1992. Its second, 'Climate Change 1995', provided key input to the negotiations which led to the Kyoto Protocol of 1997. Its third assessment report, Climate Change 2001, was published in September 2001.

Using material from this report, Robert Watson, Chair of the IPCC, gave a substantial keynote speech to COP6 Part 2 on 19 July 2001, in which he said that most of the observed warming of the last 50 years is attributable to human activities and concluded that:

• Policymakers are faced with responding to the risks posed by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases in the face of scientific uncertainties.
• Policymakers will have to decide to what degree they want to take precautionary measures to limit anthropogenic climate change by mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing the resilience of vulnerable systems by means of adaptation.
• Without action to limit greenhouse gas emissions the Earth's climate will warm at an unprecedented rate.

Recent figures show that it is the developed world which is the biggest polluter of the world's atmosphere, emitting vast amounts of CO2 gases from the activities of routine daily life such as travelling by car and heating one's home. The following charts illustrate the world's worst polluters and the amount of CO2 emitted per capita in these regions.

The United Nations Convention on Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 as the first major initiative by the international community to confront the challenge of global warming.

More than 150 countries signed up to the framework Convention obliging them to take control of their greenhouse gas emissions. More specifically, Europe together with other developed countries undertook to stabilise emissions at their 1990 levels by the year 2000. Very few countries have met this voluntary target. Since the Earth Summit in Rio there has been a succession of follow-up Conferences of the Parties (COPs) - Berlin, 1995; Geneva, 1996 (COP2), Kyoto, 1997 (COP3), Buenos Aires, 1998 (COP4), Bonn, 1999 (COP5), The Hague, 2000 (COP 6, Part 1) and Bonn, 2001 (COP 6, Part 2) - to allow participating countries to evaluate progress and set revised targets for the years beyond 2000.

• Negotiating Groups within the UNFCCC Process

180 countries are involved in the negotiation proceedings. They form a number of distinct but sometimes inter-related groups:

• European Union: the Members States of the European Union, which aimed for a primary role for domestic action (actual reductions in emissions)
• AOSIS: Alliance of Small Island States is the 42 states most threatened by rising sea levels and supportive of the EU position
• Central Group: a recently formed group consisting of the 10 applicant countries (seeking membership of the EU) plus Croatia, which all supported the EU
• G77 Group plus China: the main group of developing countries within the UN system, which, despite its name, consists of 130 countries and, although not obliged to reduce emissions, could expect to benefit from clean technology projects
• Economies in transition: countries in the former Soviet Union bloc, expected to be the location for many joint implementation projects
• Umbrella group: [United States], Japan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Iceland, Russia and Ukraine, all hoping for more flexible, low-cost means of achieving targets and greater use of carbon sinks
• United States: from March 2001, the United States took an isolationist position and rejected Kyoto as a 'flawed treaty', thereby putting the resumed negotiations (COP6 Part 2) at risk
• Japan: part of the Umbrella Group, its agreement became crucial once the United States withdrew.

Kyoto Protocol

At COP3 in Kyoto in 1997, a Protocol to the Convention was adopted by the parties to the Convention. This set the following binding commitments for industrialised (Annex 1) countries regarding the reduction of emissions from 6 greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocabons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride, measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalent) during the period 2008-2012:

• 8% reduction in emissions by the EU and most Central and Eastern European countries ( 6% for Poland and Hungary, 5% for Croatia)
• 7% reduction by the United States
• 6% reduction by Japan and Canada
• stabilisation of emissions by New Zealand, Russia and the Ukraine
• increase in emissions of 1% for Norway, 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland
• no binding commitment for developing countries, although the Protocol creates a mechanism to allow private sector funds to be used in developing countries to finance projects to reduce emissions.

These targets would together constitute an average 5.2% reduction below 1990 levels. Some scientists say it would take carbon cuts of 60% or more to prevent dangerous climatic instability, so Kyoto is a small though necessary step.

The European Union was anxious to see binding commitments for actual reductions. Other non-EU countries wanted more flexibility in meeting their targets and the United States objected to the exclusion of targets for developing countries.

Kyoto mechanisms

The Kyoto Protocol included three market mechanisms as a cost-effective means of achieving reductions:

• International emissions trading, whereby countries can buy and sell the 'right to pollute' in order to meet their emissions targets and countries that did not emit all the pollution they were entitled to could sell the unused part to one close to its limits
• Joint implementation , whereby industrialised countries can earn credits by investing in emission-reducing technology projects in other developed countries
• Clean development mechanism (CDM), whereby industrialised countries can receive credits for financing clean technology projects in developing countries

These flexible mechanisms would allow countries which have pledged emission cuts over the next decade to fulfil their pledges in part by means other than domestic policies and measures. The goal of these measures is to reduce the overall price of meeting Kyoto targets by allowing countries with high reduction costs to acquire 'emission credits' from countries where reductions are cheaper or free.

In addition, there is an option to use 'carbon sinks' or ecosystems such as forests, grasslands and oceans which can remove carbon from the atmosphere by absorbing and storing it, thus offsetting CO² emissions. Sink activities undertaken since 1990 can be counted in the emissions target which absorb carbon dioxide, to gain emission credits. The range of activities that can be used as carbon sinks is often referred to as LULUCF (land use , land-use change and forestry), and is the subject of considerable scientific debate about uncertainties and risks.

United States' position on Kyoto

As early as 1992, the United States objected strongly to the exclusion of developing countries (including China and India) from any commitment to reduce emissions. The Rio Earth Summit had concluded that there should be no participation by developing countries until the industrialised countries (the principal polluters) had shown willingness to reduce emissions. In Kyoto in 1997, the United States sought greater use of flexible mechanisms, including emissions trading, as an alternative to actual emission cuts. Although the United States is a signatory to both the Convention and the Protocol, it was always doubtful that the agreement of the United States Senate could be obtained and, under the Clinton administration in 1997, the Senate rejected Kyoto by 95 to 0 (the Byrd-Hagel Resolution). On 12 March 2001, in a letter to Senators Hagel, Helms, Craig and Roberts on global climate change in general and the Kyoto Protocol in particular, recently-elected President Bush wrote:

I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 per cent of the world, including major population centres such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the United States economy. The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns.

He said his administration would not be seeking mandatory reductions in carbon dioxide emissions from power stations. Such limits on carbon dioxide emissions would lead to higher energy prices. Carbon dioxide is not listed as a pollutant in the United States Clean Air Act. The US refused to ratify Kyoto but is a Convention signatory, so it still participates in international climate change talks. Bush says that climate change is an urgent problem which he will tackle - but not through Kyoto. No alternative plan has yet appeared. An account of the United States' objections to Kyoto can be seen in the speech, Remarks to resumed Sixth Conference of Parties, given by Paula Dobriansky, Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs on 23 July 2001, the day the Parties reached an agreement on Kyoto.

As the world's principal polluter, responsible for about 25% of all greenhouse gas emissions, the United States was likely to bear the major cost of implementing the Kyoto rules. The European Union, on the other hand, is in a much better position. The European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) was established by the European Commission in March 2000 to help identify the most environmentally and cost effective additional measures enabling the EU to meet its target under the Kyoto Protocol, namely an 8% reduction in greenhouse gases from 1990 levels by 2008-2012. A report published in June 2001 concluded that the potential of cost-effective options is twice the size of the EU's required emission reduction. A press release (IP/01/816) summarises its findings.

Progress on Kyoto

Environmental ministers from 70 countries, meeting at COP4 in Buenos Aires in November 1998, agreed on a two year Plan of Action or timetable for negotiation of the many practical issues relating to the Protocol and its implementation. The 140 point action plan was to be completed by COP6, 2000.

• Sixth Conference of the Parties COP6 Part 1, The Hague, December 2000

On 3 November 2000, the Commission published its briefing paper The EU's positions for COP6. For the EU, the main goal at COP6 was to ensure decisions are taken that both enable Parties to launch the process of ratifying the Protocol and safeguard the Protocol's environmental integrity and credibility. The key issues were seen as:

• To ensure that industrialised countries take real action at home to reduce emissions by securing a primary role for domestic policies and measures
• In view of the considerable uncertainty over their scale and permanence, to limit the extent to which 'sinks' that absorb carbon, such as forests, can be used by industrialised countries to offset their emissions
• To clarify operational rules for Kyoto mechanisms and ensure that their use is supplemental to domestic action
• To establish a comprehensive and tough regime to oversee Parties' compliance with the Protocol, including effective penalties with a clear economic impact for non-compliance by industrialised countries with their emission targets
• To help developing countries meet their Convention commitments and adapt to climate change through capacity building, transfer of clean technologies and financial assistance

The Sixth Session Conference of the Parties (COP6) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was held in The Hague from 13 to 25 November 2000 but did not result in agreement on all issues and was suspended.

In her report to the European Parliament at the end of November 2000, European Commissioner Margot Wallström said:

The EU negotiating position concentrated on safeguarding the environmental integrity of the Kyoto Protocol in the area of 'sinks', 'supplementarity' and compliance. This meant that, in the negotiations with other Parties, trade-offs between these issues had to be explored.

With good technical progress on the rules for the Kyoto mechanisms and the development of a compliance system, final negotiations focused mainly on trade-offs between supplementarity and sinks. However there was not enough time to evaluate last-minute compromise proposals on the use of sinks in terms of their impact on countries inside and outside the EU. There was nevertheless sufficient evidence that environmental integrity would be seriously compromised and therefore the EU decided not to accept these proposals.
European Commission: Speech: SPEECH/00/476

So that the 'Buenos Aires Plan of Action' did not expire without any concrete result or follow-up, it was decided to suspend COP6 and resume the conference in 2001 as COP6 Part 2.

• Sixth Conference of the Parties COP6 Part 2, Bonn, 2001

The resumed Sixth Session (COP6 Part 2) took place in Bonn from 16 to 27 July 2001, with 180 countries participating.

On 6 July 2001 the Commission had published a supplementary briefing paper EU position for the Bonn conference on climate change, 19-27 July 2001, which confirmed that its main negotiating position remained unchanged since COP6 Part 1 at The Hague.

The goal of deciding on the implementation rules for the 1997 Kyoto Protocol could only be achieved through some compromise between the European Union and the non-EU developed countries. The EU sought actual reductions in each industrialised country while the non-EU developed countries, especially Japan, wanted to make greater use of flexible mechanisms and sinks to reach their targets. With the United States - the world's largest CO2 polluter refusing to ratify the protocol, the willingness of Japan to agree to the proposed rules became crucial if the Kyoto Protocol were to be saved.

A draft decision, Core elements for the implementation of the Buenos Aires Plan of Action,

presented on 21 July 2001, represented a hard compromise involving far-reaching concessions for the EU on issues such as the inclusion of sinks, financing and supplementarity. The compromise corresponded to many of the wishes of other countries such as Japan and Canada but did not reflect the EU's preferred option. However, the EU was unable to achieve a better result and after 48 hours of continuous negotiation an agreement was reached on 23 July 2001.

Bonn Agreement on Climate Change

The Bonn agreement should make it possible to ratify Kyoto by 2002. The principle features of the agreement are:

• Domestic action: this is still a significant element of emissions reduction.
• Kyoto mechanisms: use of the Kyoto mechanism (emissions trading, joint implementation and clean development) to gain credits is supplemental to domestic action. Nuclear energy cannot be used to generate credits from projects under joint implementation or clean development. Revenues from 2% of clean development projects will be paid into a new Kyoto Protocol adaptation fund to help developing countries which are vulnerable to climate change.
• Carbon sinks: industrialised countries can use forestry management, up to a set limit, to meet their emission targets. Under the clean management mechanism, only sinks projects involving afforestation and reafforestation can be counted up to a fixed limit. No limit has been set on sinks from agricultural activities. The total amount of carbon that can be absorbed through sink activities is the equivalent of about 70% of the reduction commitment of the industrialised countries (excluding the United States). This is far higher than the EU wanted.
• Funding for developing countries: three new funds will be established:

• a special climate fund to finance activities in such areas as: adaptation to climate change, technology transfer, energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry, waste management, diversification of energy
• a least developed countries fund to support a work programme for these countries
• the Kyoto Protocol adaptation fund to finance projects in developing countries that ratify the Protocol

Compliance system: the Kyoto Protocol has special features, targets, deadlines, emissions market mechanisms, that require a strong compliance system. National action plans, giving priority to domestic action will have to be developed. Countries which fail to meet targets in one period will have targets increased in the next period and non-compliant countries will also be excluded from the emissions trading market.

A decision on the legally binding nature of the compliance system was postponed to a later meeting.

Seventh Conference of the Parties COP 7, Marrakech, November 2001

The parties to the Convention met again in 2001, at the Seventh Conference of the Parties (COP-7) held in Marrakech from the 29 October until 10 November. The explicit aim was to finalise the operational rules of the Kyoto Protocol. The Executive Secretary of the Convention, Michael Zammit Cutajar, speaking ahead of the Conference, said,

The work of translating the Bonn Agreements into a detailed operational rulebook must be completed here in Marrakech...Marrakech should be the turning point that enables the Protocol to move into high gear'.
UNFCCC Press release: 09.11.01

The main work at Marrakech was to adopt ten draft decisions completed at Bonn. In addition three draft decisions (addressing 'sinks', mechanisms and compliance) which were discussed but not completed at Bonn and two (on policies and measures, and reporting and review,) which were not discussed were also due to be taken up at Marrakech so that the 15 draft decisions could be adopted together as a package.

• The EU Position

At the start of the Ministerial Climate conference, the European Union stated its determination to reach decisions which would enable the Kyoto Protocol to enter into force. Head of the EU delegation, Belgian State Secretary, Olivier Deleuze, said,

'The European Union is determined to uphold the integrity of the political agreement reached in Bonn and calls upon the parties to respect strictly the Bonn agreement and to maintain the political consensus and the spirit of co-operation that prevailed at COP6. All the elements of the Bonn Agreement must be faithfully translated into legal texts
European Commission: Memo: MEMO/01/358

European Commissioner for the Environment, Margot Wallström, added:

'We are here in Marrakech to finish a job. Some intense negotiations still lie ahead, though. We are clearly not there yet. More work needs to be done on quite a number of issues. I was also pleased to be able to present the Kyoto Package put forward by the Commission last month to the Conference today. With this package we have confirmed our ambition to maintain EU leadership in the fight against climate change and our resolve to take action at home'.
European Commission: Memo: MEMO/01/358

• Russia and Japan

While at Bonn it was the EU who took the opposing stance, at Marrakech it was Japan and Russia who threatened ratification of the Protocol.

Russia sought extra 'credit' for the extra 33 million tons of carbon a year that it claims would be absorbed by its vast forests under environmental management. This was finally agreed upon despite hesitation from Japan who may need to buy carbon credits from Russia and feared that careless compliance by Russia would limit the latter's ability to do so.

Japan may need to buy credits because its individual target of a 6% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is one of the hardest of the Kyoto national goals, considering that Japan is relatively energy-efficient. However, Japan also succeeded in making it easier for countries to be able to sell credits for surplus emissions or carbon sinks and got an assurance that penalties for non-compliance would not be increased after ratification of the treaty.

The Marrakech Accords

By forging a compromise between Russia and Japan, all parties successfully reached agreement on the Marrakech Accords.

The main features of the agreement fall into three areas: the compliance system, the regulatory framework, and monitoring, reporting and review.

• COMPLIANCE: A solid compliance system was established which will be put into place after the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. Following the resistance by Japan and Russia, a compromise wording was found which postponed a formal decision on the exact legal nature of compliance, but stated that countries must accept the agreed compliance rules if they want to take part in emissions trading. According to the Bonn agreement, for every ton of gas that a country emits over its target it will be required to reduce an additional 1.3 tons during the protocol's second commitment period.
• INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY FRAMEWORK: Three mechanisms were established to make the Kyoto Protocol operational:

• International Emissions Trading. From 2008, trading in international emissions will be able to begin. The risk of overselling emissions credits will be kept minimal through the introduction of a mandatory Commitment Period Reserve (CPR).
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The Executive Board of the CDM was elected, allowing for the prompt start of the CDF. The European Union secured two seats on the board's first term with experts from France and Denmark. Rules and modalities for the CDM were clarified with Annex I having a blocking minority on the Board.
• Joint Implementation. The institutional framework for Joint Implementation was also established, governed by a Supervisory Committee. The majority of the Committee will be made up by Annex I Parties as these undertake the JI projects. However, non-Annex I parties will be represented as well and will have a blocking minority.

• MONITORING, REPORTING and REVIEW: This was a particularly difficult part of the negotiations because of its highly technical nature. However a general agreement on most of the guidelines was reached. All parties have to include all necessary information in their annual greenhouse gas inventories including those on sinks. The detailed reporting requirements will only be decided on the basis of IPCC recommendations on good practice.

In addition to decisions on the three key issues there were some other noteworthy developments at Marrakech.

Important decisions were taken for the benefit of the Least Developed Countries (LDC) that are most vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. A LDC Expert Group will be established with the participation of the industrialised countries to help prepare National Adaptation Programmes for Action (NAPA) and promote the exchange of best practices through networking. The necessary financial resources for the NAPAs will be provided through voluntary contributions from donors. So far only Canada has made a pledge of CAN$ 10 million.

Turkey also confirmed that it will become a party to the UNFCCC soon following agreement that it will remain in Annex I of the Convention and withdraw from Annex II. This means that during the Kyoto second period it will be able to take on a quantified limitation or reduction commitment.

The Central Group 11 confirmed that the Czech Republic has completed its ratification of the protocol joining Cyprus and Romania. Luxembourg confirmed that it had completed its internal ratification procedures and so is ready to ratify at the same time as the EC and the other Member States.

More information on the agreement reached at Marrakech can be found in the European Commission DG Environment's final report on the Marrakech conference.

Reaction to Marrakech

The agreement at Marrakech has been widely hailed as a significant step forward in the battle against climate change. Michael Zammit Cutajar, who has been the Convention's secretary for ten years, said,

'The Marrakech results send a clear signal to business, local governments and the general public that climate-friendly products, services and activities will be rewarded by consumers and national policies alike'
UNFCCC Press Release: 10.11.01

The European Union declared that they had achieved their objective to make Kyoto operational. Oliver Deleuze, head of the EU delegation said,

'Finally, action can start on the ground to put an end to the dramatic consequences of climate change, which are threatening the whole planet'.
European Commission: Memo: MEMO/01/364

Environment Commissioner Margöt Wallstrom called the agreement,

'A milestone in the global fight against climate change. People across the globe have demonstrated that, facing the global threat of climate change, they want to join forces'
European Commission: Memo: MEMO/01/364

However, environmental organisations were more cautious in their praise. Greenpeace welcomed the agreement but called it 'a hard won battle for a token outcome' and said there was much more to be done,

The Kyoto Protocol is just a small start in what must be an ongoing and ever increasing commitment to reduce greenhouse gases globally. Now that the architecture of the Protocol is in place, parties have no excuse to delay ratifying and implementing it. The Kyoto Protocol is the key to preventing dangerous climate change. The door has only just been unlocked. Now we have to fling it wide open.
Greenpeace: Press Release: 10.11.01

Friends of the Earth International were also critical, welcoming the move but saying that it did not go far enough,

The talks failed to set out a road map for future negotations or request action to promote renewable energy worldwide in a statement to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), scheduled to take place in Johannesburg in 2002. This is disappointing given the significance of climate change to sustainable development. The impacts of climate change are already adversely affecting many poor communities around the world, increasing global inequality. It is crucial that these impacts are considered within the wider context of sustainable development.
Friends of the Earth international: Press Release: 11.11.01

From Kyoto to Marrakech to Johannesburg

Following the agreement on the operational rulebook at Marrakech, the Kyoto Protocol should be ratified ahead of the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002. The European Union has announced that it aims to ratify next year.

If Kyoto is ratified by enough countries for it to enter into force over the next year then this will certainly send a positive message to the Johannesburg summit on the need for international co-operation to combat climate change and the potential of multilateral agreements. However, the Kyoto Protocol still lacks the support of the United States of America, the world's worst polluter. The progress on emission credits and carbon sinks at Marrakech certainly offer countries more flexibility within the Kyoto Protocol. If this could persuade the United States to ratify Kyoto then that would be the real success of Marrakech and the last decade of climate change negotiations.

Further information within European Sources Online:

European Sources Online: Topic Guides
	The Environment Policy of the European Union

European Sources Online: In Focus
	13.11.99:	Convention on Climate Change, Bonn, 25 October - 5 November 1999
	27.01.01:	European Commission adopts Sixth Environmental Action Programme, 24January 2001
	16.06.01:	European Council, Gothenburg, 15-16 June 2001
	14.07.01:	The European Union's strategy for sustainable development
European Sources Online: European Voice
	18.06.98:	Discord in the air over emissions trading plan
	26.11.98:	Industry hazy over emissions trading project
	04.03.99:	Call to restrict emission trade
	22.04.99:	Climate change strategy delayed
	23.09.99:	Dispute over poorer states' role in cutting emissions
	14.10.99:	Wallström pushes for action on emissions
	17.12.98:	Car lobby threat over Japan's emission rules
	10.02.00:	Governments show lack of political will to fulfil climate change commitments
	09.03.00:	Fight against climate change hampered by internal rows
	14.09.00:	Report blasts global warming strategy
	05.10.00:	Pressure to speed up climate change plans
	02.11.00:	Battle over 'flexible mechanisms' takes centre stage in greenhouse gas debate
	02.11.00:	Creating the right climate to fight global warming
	23.11.00:	Commission gears up for 'Rio Plus Ten' green summit
	30.11.00:	Ministers to reject binding renewable goals
	30.11.00:	Union insists climate deal still possible
	21.12.00:	Sweden has vowed to make striking an international deal on combating global warming a priority during its EU presidency
	15.03.01:	Wallström: climate talks must go on
	15.03.01:	U-turn on emissions clouds hopes of global deal
	04.05.00:	Argument rages over voluntary energy-saving industry accords
	28.09.00:	Firms attack emissions trading scheme
	05.04.01:	Europe must share blame for Kyoto busted flush
	19.04.01:	Is the Union's reaction to Bush just hot air?
	14.06.01:	Bush feels heat from Kyoto fallout
	28.06.01:	Environment strategy tough to put into action
	28.06.01:	EU 'pollution-for-sale' bid to woo Bush
	12.07.01:	Wallström rounds on US as hopes fade for Kyoto
	26.07.01:	US business may force Bush U-turn on Kyoto Protocol
	26.07.01:	Bonn: the key points of the deal
	18.10.01:	'Green' equipment pledge dropped
	31.10.01:	Time to let the US know global warming counts, too
	08.11.01:	Hopes increase of finalising Kyoto deal
European Sources Online: Financial Times
	02.03.01:	G8 under pressure to curb carbon emissions
	09.04.01:	EU affirms Kyoto goals but hints at compromise
	12.06.01:	EU 'can afford' to exceed goals set by Kyoto
	15.06.01:	Big split remains over Kyoto protocol
	18.06.01:	Beyond Kyoto
	11.07.01:	Business chiefs throw weight behind
	12.07.01:	Brussels warns US not to obstruct Kyoto talks
	14.07.01:	Preserving the spirit of Kyoto (editorial)
	15.07.01:	Japanese warn on Kyoto prospects
	16.07.01:	A treaty gasping for air
	23.07.01:	Bonn climate meeting hangs in the balance
	24.07.01:	Warming to the Kyoto Protocol
	24.07.01:	Leaders hails Kyoto rescue deal
	25.07.01:	Winners and losers wait for fog to clear around Kyoto
	08.11.01:	Hopes increase of finalising Kyoto deal

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• 04.04.01: EU will fight to save Kyoto agreement (MEMO/01/121)
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• 08.11.01: Climate Change negotiations in Marrakech (MEMO/01/358)
• 12.11.01: EU hails Marrakech agreement on operational rules to combat Climate Change (MEMO/01/364)

Speeches:

• 30.11.00: Ms Margot Wallström, Commissioner for Environment. Statement on the outcome on the Sixth Conference of the Parties (COP6) - The United Nations Convention on Climate Change, European Parliament, Brussels, 29 November 2000 (SPEECH/00/476)
• 18.06.01: Margot Wallström: The results of the Göteborg European Council with respect to sustainable development and climate change (SPEECH/01/295)
• 03.07.01: Margot Wallström: Report on the European Council in Göteborg. Statement to the European Parliament on behalf of the Commission (SPEECH/01/325)

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• Homepage
• State of the global environment
• Environmental issues
• Stockholm 1972
• Rio declaration on environment and development, 1992
• Agenda 21
• Johannesburg Summit 2002
• Environmental legal instruments
• Register of environmental conventions
• Countries and regions

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (WMO and UNEP)

• Homepage
• Activities
• Publications
• Reports
• Press releases and speeches

International Energy Agency

• Homepage

OECD Environment

• Climate Change and Environmentally Sustainable Transport
• Kyoto mechanisms: Monitoring and Compliance: From Kyoto to the Hague

United Nations: World Summit on Sustainable Development

• Johannesburg Summit 2002

World Bank Group

• Home page
• Global climate change

National Organisations

United Kingdom. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

• Homepage
• Climate change
• What is climate change?
• Action being taken to tackle global warming
• Climate change: the UK's programme (summary)
• Climate change: the UK programme, Cm 4913, November 2000 (full text)
• The science of climate change

Germany: Federal Environment Ministry

• Homepage
• Climate protection

Germany: UK Embassy

• Homepage

United States. Department of State

• Climate change (archived site 20 January 2001)
• 11.06.01: Remarks by President Bush on global climate change
• 13.07.01: Statement on climate change by President Bush
• 13.07.01: Action on climate change review initiatives, announcement by President Bush
• 19.07.01: Statement on global climate change, by Paula Dobriansky to COP6 Part 2
• 23.07.01: Remarks to resumed Sixth Conference of Parties, by Paula Dobriansky

United States. Environmental Protection Agency

• Homepage
• Global warming
• Climate
• Emissions
• Impacts
• Actions

Japan. Ministry of the Environment

• Homepage
• Policies
• Climate change
• Guideline of measures to prevent global warming
• Japan's domestic efforts to follow up on the Kyoto conference
• Law concerning the promotion of the measures to cope with global warming
• Statement on climate change by Ms Yoriko Kawaguchi, Minister of the Environment, 9.4.01

Non-Governmental organisations

Friends of the Earth, Europe

• Homepage
• Climate change
• Climate change campaign
• Climate change links

Greenpeace

• Homepage
• Climate Countdown
• 10.11.01: Kyoto is the key - now use it

World Wide Fund for Nature, Europe (WWF)

• Homepage
• Climate change
• Ministers' agreement on Kyoto: "geopolitical earthquake", 23.7.01

Climate Independent Media Center

• Homepage
• Climate Change: Frequently Asked Questions
• 27.10.01: COP-7 in Marrakech seeks to privatise the atmosphere
• 13.11.01: What happened at COP-7?
• 22.11.01: Was it a fair COP in Marrakech - analysis

Climate Network Europe

• Homepage
• COP-7 News
• Hotspot Newsletter: Issue 19: October 2001
• Climate Change after Kyoto: Science, Politics, Solutions
• 04.11.01: Letter to Deleuze: Concern on EU backsliding at COP-7

International Institute for Sustainable Development, Canada

• Homepage
• Climate change
• Climate change knowledge network
• Climate compendium - issues
• Kyoto mechanisms
• Emissions trading
• Joint implementation
• Clean development mechanism
• Compliance
• LULUCF (Land use, land-use change and forestry sector or "sinks")
• Earth negotiations bulletin (ENB) (daily)
• ENB, 24 July 2001
• Linkages: a multimedia resource for environment and development policy makers
• COP6 - Resumed session (with daily bulletins)

Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, Virginia, United States

• Homepage
• Site map
• Climate talks in Bonn
• Building an effective international agreement
• International climate negotiations - from Rio to Kyoto and beyond
• Defining the rules of the road
• Impasse at The Hague
• Website: 'Climate Talks in Marrakech'

Asia - Pacific Network on Climate Change

• Homepage

News

Financial Times

• 10.11.01: Climate conference reaches deal (FT.com)
• 12.11.01: UN meeting reaches accord on global warming (FT.com)

BBC News

• Homepage
• In depth: global climate change
• Evidence
• Impact
• Greenhouse effect
• Forecast for Europe
• Politics of climate change
• 12.02.97: Mixed reaction to Kyoto agreement
• 17.05.01: Science academies back Kyoto
• 11.06.01: Bush faces up to Kyoto critics
• 12.06.01: UN bid to salvage Kyoto
• 03.07.01: Japan worried on climate treaty
• 09.07.01: Japan to press US on Kyoto
• 10.07.01: UK 'hiding scale of climate threat'
• 10.07.01: Climate change 'will hit the hungry'
• 12.07.01: Charting climate change
• 14.07.01: Bush feels heat on global warming
• 15.07.01: Japan gloomy on Kyoto talks
• 15.07.01: Storm clouds over climate talks
• 23.07.01: The Bonn deal: winners and losers
• 23.07.01: UK hails new Kyoto deal
• 24.07.01: Bonn deal at a glance
• 09.11.01: Climate conference nears end
• 10.11.01: Climate Conference reaches deal
• 12.11.01: Marrakech nudges climate treaty onwards

Further and subsequent information on the subject of this week's In Focus can be found by In Focus can be found by a search in European Sources Online: insert 'Climate change', 'Kyoto' or 'Marrakech' in the keyword field.

Helen Bower, Freda Carroll, KnowEurope Researcher
Compiled: 30 November 2001

An agreement on the operational rules for the Kyoto Protocol was finally reached in Morocco on 10 November 2001, paving the way for its ratification.